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= Egyptian Gods & Goddesses = Throughout the countless “complex societies” seen throughout human history, one can find ample evidence for the practice of some form of religion. To say that ancient Egypt would be an example of this would be an understatement, as religion served a critical role in the life of each and every Egyptian citizen of the empire. Furthermore, the influence of religion seeped into many facets of political, personal and social life as well, leaving a mark on both written history as well as the archaeological record. Particularly notable in the belief system of ancient Egypt was the presence of a pantheon of gods and goddesses, who literally numbered into the hundreds, and who each individually served a unique purpose and were worshiped in unique ways depending on what they represented. The complexity of these gods and goddesses serve as an excellent parallel to the complexity and significance of Egyptian religion, and by viewing who these gods were, their purpose in Egyptian society, and the evidence of their significance the Egyptians left behind we can gain a better understanding of not only ancient Egyptian religion, but rather ancient Egypt as a whole (David 150). An example of one of the effects of the worship of Egyptian deities on common life is explored by Darden in the "calendars/festivals" section here.

Origins of the Gods
The origins of the deities worshipped in ancient Egypt are complex and difficult to ascertain with certainty, but there is enough evidence for some conclusions to be drawn. Prior to Narmer’s unification of Egypt around 3100 BCE, it appears that rather than the gods associated with Egypt today that the Egyptians worshiped in what has been called “Animal Cults” (David 150). These cults functioned in a way similar to later Egyptian religion, only with a lesser degree of complexity. During this predynastic era, Egyptian communities each worshiped deities separately, and they were almost always deities of animals. These animals included jackals, cows and sheep, animals seen regularly in Egyptian life (150). These animals were selected and worshiped due to the Egyptians close contact and regular interaction with them, as opposed to the less personal association with the gods themselves (Graham). Rosalie David notes that the reasons these animals were selected as religiously significant could have several explanations, including that the animals “assisted mankind,” or on the other side of the spectrum “were feared” and “deified in an attempt to propitiate them” (150). Regardless, during this era it was animals, not gods or goddesses that were most religiously significant, and were represented as such. Depictions of animals on pottery, amulets, statues, and palettes have been found in association with human burials. Furthermore, actual specimens of the worshiped animals were buried in linens and found associated with human graves. These early “animal cults” are significant when examining the Egyptian gods and goddesses because they serve as a precursor to the gods and goddesses that later become key in Egyptian life. The best example of this is how nearly all Egyptian gods are not only associated with animals, but even exhibit animal characteristics themselves in various depictions. After all, the classic depiction of the Egyptian deity is that of a human with the head of an animal. These “animal cults” would continue to exist throughout Egyptian history and help to supplement the larger belief system of the empire, serving an important role in local communities throughout their history (150). For example, Egyptians continued to worship cats throughout the history of the empire, holding them in such sacred esteem that cat owners would mummify their pets upon their death (Graham).

Following the unification of Egypt, the belief system practiced by Egypt’s citizens changed as well, mostly due to the conquering of various communities by other communities and eventual absorption into the Egyptian empire as a whole. Following conquest of an Egyptian community (called a nome); victorious nomes typically exhibited a form of syncretism by which the defeated principalities’ gods were absorbed into the gods or god of the winning side. In doing so, the victorious nome would augment their chief god with the “best” characteristics of the defeated gods, or even have the subjugated nome’s god become some form of a lesser god who followed the nome’s chief god. Other times, defeated nome’s chief deity was wiped from existence totally. Either way, this resulted in a complex system in which each community in Egypt had a unique pantheon of gods and goddesses in which citizens of the nome would worship a single god of their choosing, but one that was associated with the nome in which they lived. State priests attempted to alleviate the confusion associated with having countless pantheons of gods by both placing gods into families or groups determined by the location of the chief god’s cult center, as well as establishing creation myths in order to better explain the association of one god with another. As Egypt’s political system expanded and pharaohs came into power, gods and goddesses would see their influence expanded depending on who was in charge at the time. Often, a pharaoh would elevate the status of their local god or goddess to the highest level when in charge, and many times would retain the elevated status of some of the more significant gods (in their opinions) elevated by previous pharaohs. This phenomenon explains how gods often associated with ancient Egypt such as Ra or Osiris seemed to always be particularly noted throughout Egypt’s history (David 151). In this way, it seemed that even the gods could serve as an extension of the pharaoh’s power.

State Gods
Gods or goddesses elevated by pharaohs to the highest status possible were known as “state gods,” due to their association with those in power. These gods are perhaps the best known of all Egyptian deities, as with the status prescribed to them by the pharaohs came a large increase in depictions and written accounts (David 152). These gods were worshiped in massive royal cult centers, in which not only offerings were made to the god’s large statue (which was encased within the center), but which also became a location where the pharaoh’s funeral rites occurred. Furthermore, state god cult centers were locations in which one could grant offerings in order to ensure the eternal divinity and sustenance of the dead pharaoh. These centers were originally attached to pyramids but later became large, stand-alone temple complexes (154-5), the architecture and art of these centers is examined by Daws here. Eventually, temple complexes were scrapped for smaller, more secret tombs as explored by Lee here, in the section "The City of the Dead." The multipurpose function of these cult centers is not all that unlike the religious function of the Indian city of Vijayanagara, as described by Gutierrez here. A further similarity with this concept of temple building can be found in ancient southeastern Asia, as researched by Deming here. These centers would eventually become hallmarks of the Egyptian empire, with large temple complexes serving as clues in understanding the Egyptian conception of the afterlife and religion, not to mention serving as major tourist attractions today. One example of a state god was that of Osiris, the god of the underworld and judge of the dead. Osiris was considered just, righteous and extremely powerful. Osiris’ creation myth establishes him as being born a human king, and after his death at the hands of his jealous brother Seth, was reborn with the assistance of his wife Isis and son Horus, who helped him avenge his death and attain his godly status. Osiris is among the most significant gods in all of ancient Egypt, with the best evidence for this being that his cult centers in Busiris and Abydos became locations of pilgrimage for all Egyptian citizens (David 152). Osiris was even said to be buried at Abydos, accounting for the site’s particular reverence in Egyptian lore (Teeter & Brewer). Osiris, Isis and Horus together became a triad of gods associated with family virtues, with Isis even attaining the status of “supreme mother goddess” (David 152). Horus and Osiris also carry heavy significance with the concept of kinship as well (David 152), and help transfer divine power between pharaohs in so much as the deceased previous pharaoh was associated with Osiris and the new pharaoh Horus, creating a sort of dynasty line for each pharaoh. This was extremely significant in terms of the defining the religious context of pharaonic geneaology (Teeter & Brewer). Osiris was also significant in Egyptian preparation for the afterlife, as discussed by Taylor here. The cult of Isis, Osiris' wife and a goddess heavily associated with Osiris, is further explored by Naserdin here.

A second example of a state god is that of Amun, known as the “father of the gods” (David 153). Amun became perhaps the single most important deity figure in all of ancient Egypt, following the reign of the 18th dynasty in which he was elevated to state god status by a royal family from Thebes (Amun’s cult center) whose children had become pharaohs. Along with his lofty title, Amun was the “ruler of the peoples of Egypt,” creating something of a conflict with the god-like pharaoh of the empire, something that Egyptian religion did little to resolve. Amun would eventually become associated with the sun god Ra, eventually being combined and creating a supreme god known as Amun-Ra (152). Amun had a large temple at the complex of Karnak, the largest temple complex in all of Egypt where several different pharaohs left their mark be it by temple or statue (Bard 237). The religious worship of Amun/Amun-Ra is significant in that it shows the Egyptians' reverence of natural forces as well as providing a cornerstone for many of the several cosmologies of Egyptian religion.

The Case of Aten
One particularly interesting, example of a state god is that of Aten, or “the sun’s disk” (David 153). For a period this god became even more influential than Amun, primarily due to the rise of Akhenaten to pharaoh. Akhenaten proclaimed a system of monotheism to be the new Egyptian religion, with Aten the only god worshiped and with all other temples closed and priests disbanded (153). His name reflects this change, as Akhenaten literally translates to “servant of the Aten” (174). Akhenaten also moved the capital to Tell el-Amarna, where Aten worship was at its highest. Here, Akhenaten built an “anti-Karnak,” changing the location of the focus of the Egyptian gods (Ray 27). This shift of power to Amarna reflected many changes, including Egyptian art, as noted by Natwick here. Akhenaten’s title after his reign of “heretic king” helps to show the controversial results of this change (David 153). No similar system had ever been previously instated by previous pharaohs, and such a radical change never followed either (173). A look at the ascension of Aten to such high status and then fall also reveals a common theme in Egyptian religion and that is the destruction of images of previous pharaoh’s gods in favor of new images of the new pharaoh’s gods. This phenomenon was particularly pronounced with Aten following Akhenaten’s reign (Bard 235). Despite the association of Aten worship with monotheism, it is important to note that during Akhenaten’s reign, many vestiges of typical Egyptian polytheism remained, with gods such as Bes remaining important. Akhenaten’s reign, as Teeter and Brewer note, is more aptly titled “henotheism” where one god is elevated above all others in importance (Teeter & Brewer). This era of Egyptian religious history is highly significant, as it showed not only the religious power of the pharaoh, but also the shift to Aten worship resulted in many changes to Egyptian life for a time, as noted in the example of the Amarna art style.

Local Gods
A second type of god was that of “local gods,” in which gods were worshiped only at certain religious centers in various nomes (David 153). Like their royal counterparts, local gods were also worshiped at cult centers, but sometimes in much more rudimentary ways and certainly without the level of opulence associated with the temples of some of the later dynasties. Like the royal centers, local god centers featured a statue of the god in question and an area for religious ceremonies and offerings to be made. The only conceptual difference with these centers and the royal ones was the lack of a funerary area (154-5). There are many examples of local gods, one example of which is Montu. Depicted as a human with a falcon head, Montu was a god of war worshiped at Armant. Montu is most significant for being elevated to the status of protector of a royal line of pharaohs who originated from Armant during the 11th dynasty (David 153). These types of gods are significant in that they help to show how many Egyptians retained at least the local worship aspect of the original animal cults, and it is through local gods that the majority of the Egyptian pantheon of gods is comprised.

Household Gods
A final type of god is that of the household god, a unique form of religious figure for the Egyptians in that these gods were not worshiped widely in public "temple cults," as previously discussed Egyptian deities tended to be, but rather worshiped in the privacy of one's own home. Examples of such gods include Bes and Tauert, both of whom are gods associated with children and childbirth (a phenomenon examined further by Hayenga here). This at least partly explains why they were worshiped within the home, as childbirth and child-rearing occurred there (David 153-4). Bes in particular became popular following the reign of the "heretic king" Akhenaten, and images of Bes appeared all over typical Egyptian objects such as utensils, earrings, rings and pennants, showing the influence that such "household gods" had over the lives of the Egyptian people (Hodjash 67). Depicted as a “bowlegged dwarf,” Bes was also noted as being the god of love, marriage, dancing and jollification, carrying much more jovial weight than many of the more serious gods in the Egyptian pantheon (David 167). Household gods help show what was considered significant at a more personal level with the Egyptian people, and their appearance in the archaeological record in many personal items furthers this point.

Conclusion
By not only examining the gods and goddesses of Egypt, but what they represented and how the Egyptians worshiped them, one can gain a clearer image of both Egyptian religion as well as what was important in Egyptian society. It is clear that, through the palatial temples and care given to worshiping gods that religion was important to the ancient Egyptian. Being protected from uncertainties such as harm or even death also appeared important, as did child-rearing and kinship. Issues such as these still exist today, and it is interesting to look at how the Egyptians dealt with them in their time.

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Related Links
Here are several additional links to wikis related both to ancient religions as well as ancient Egypt.

//Ancient Religions// Europe (Slipsager) Africa (Vasquez) Maya (Robertson) Aztecs (Diiorio)

//Ancient Egypt// Agriculture (Jennelle) Technology (Milligan) Art: History (Diaz) Art: Every Day Life (Imperial) Gender Roles (Hayenga) Gender Roles (Besinger)